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Engine Oil Filter Scrap Iron Absorption Device ,



Development

On April 2, 1965, Gudmund’s day in Sweden, after several years of planning, the Saab board started Project Gudmund. This was a project to develop a new and larger car to take the manufacturer beyond the market for the smaller Saab 96. This new car became the Saab 99, designed by Sixten Sason and unveiled in Stockholm on November 22, 1967.

The first prototypes of the 99 were built by cutting a Saab 96 lengthwise and widening it by 20 centimetres (7.9 in); this created the so called Paddan (Toad), which was a disguise for the new project.

After that phase, also as a disguise, the first 99 body shell was badged “daihatsu” as that name could be made up out of letters available for other Saab models.

Project Gudmund with “daihatsu” labe , used rails .

The 99 was built in the Finnish Valmet factory; five years of this production (from 1979) was alongside the Finnish built version of the Talbot Horizon, which shared a similar high quality velour upholstery to the 99 , best windshield wipers .

Although Saab engineers liked the two stroke engine it was decided that a four stroke engine was necessary and the choice was a 1.5 L (later 1.75 and 1.85 L) engine from Triumph, the same Triumph Slant-4 engine used in the Triumph Dolomite, but the Saab version was fitted with a Zenith-Stromberg CD carburetor developed specially for Saab. Forty-eight Saab 99s were equipped with a Stag V8 from Triumph, but the idea to use a V8 was later dropped in favour of a turbocharged engine.

A three-door station wagon (estate) version was planned from the start, but never made it into production. In 1971 (with thoughts about a combi coup) the work on a station wagon was restarted, this time as a five door.

Description

The first engine used in the original 99 was a four-cylinder in-line engine that was tilted at 45 degrees, basically half of a V8. The 1709 cc Triumph-sourced engine produced 87 PS (64 kW; 86 hp) at 5500 rpm. The engine was water-cooled, but unlike most cars of the time it had an electric cooling fan. Triumph soon upgraded the engine to 1.85L: the appearance in February 1971 of the 4-door Saab 99 (99CM4 series) coincided with the adoption of the bored out 1854 cc unit. Saab experienced reliability problems with Triumph sourced engines and decided to bring the design home. From September 1972 the 1985 cc Saab B engine was used; during the lifetime of the 99 model, several subsequent engine developments took place including the incorporation of fuel injection for some versions.

The bonnet (hood) was forward-hinged and the panel extended over the front wheel arches. The windscreen (windshield) was wrap-around and very deep for the era. The A-pillar had a steep angle, providing excellent driver visibility.

Due to the American sealed beam headlight requirement in place at the time the USA models had a special front fascia with two round headlights instead of the single rectangular unit it had in other markets. The “US front” then became a popular item for car customisers in Europe.

Early 99s carried over the freewheel transmission from the Saab 96, but the freewheel was removed with the introduction of the 1.85 L engine, likely on account of the extra power that the apparatus would have to transmit, and to allow the driver the option of engine braking.

The handbrake was on the front wheels.

The car was wide and low and the suspension gave it handling that was very good for the time. The Cw value was 0.37 while other cars of the time had 0.4 to 0.5. The chassis was also designed for secondary safety.

The 99 was Saab’s last rally car, first in EMS guise and later as the Turbo version. The Saab 99 turbo was one of the first “family cars” to be fitted with a turbo after the 1963-64 Oldsmobile Turbo Jetfire; other contemporary turbocharged automobiles were very “specialised” vehicles and were difficult to drive.

Wheels magazine wrote in a July 1978 road test of the 99 Turbo, “Compare the top gear times and you’ll see that the Turbo is almost as fast between 60 km/h (37 mph) and 160 km/h (99 mph) in fourth gear as any five-seater in the world.” Modern Motor of August 1978 wrote, “It is necessary to drive the car to believe that such a seemingly endless surge of strong acceleration is possible from a 2.0 L engine in a far from lightweight car.”

A police version 99 was also built. The hood/bonnet of the 99 (and also the 900) caused problems for the police livery team. Since it wraps around, covering the wheel arches, the paint had to be extended up onto the hood panel and not restricted to just the fenders as on other cars.

An interesting detail on Saab 99 (sedan model) was that it had a heating duct leading to the rear window. With a lever between the front seats the airflow could be controlled to help defogging the rear window. Another Saab feature that has been used even on later models is that the ignition lock is on the floor. Unlike most cars, where the steering wheel is locked by the ignition key, this car locks the gear stick. It has the side effect that the driver would always have to park the car with reverse gear activated (except for automatic versions). It was supposed to be safer, since the anti-theft lock would not affect safety if forced or at malfunction. However, the car thieves discovered that it was very easy to force the lock and for that reason Saab was a very popular brand for car-thieves. The system has been improved on later models (Saab 9-3 and Saab 9-5), and nowadays an electronic lock is included.

Models

UK-spec 1974 Saab 99 EMS

US-spec 1974 Saab 99 EMS

Saab 99 Turbo Rally

Interior in a Saab 99 Turbo; note the turbo boost gauge on the dashboard, the special steering wheel and pattern of the seats.

Liftbackombi coup

EMSntroduced in 1972, the EMS (Electronic Manual Special) was a sportier model that was only available in a two door version. It had a stiffer suspension and was sold in a silver colored metallic paint. The engine had 1985 cc displacement giving 110 PS (81 kW; 108 hp) and a top speed of 170 km/h (106 mph) . The grille badge differed from the more basic models.

SSEold in the US to satisfy demand while the EMS was not yet available there. The SSE had a black vinyl roof cover and a BorgWarner automatic transmission.

X7ntroduced in 1973. A very basic model only sold in Sweden and Denmark. The car had no self-repairing bumpers and it also had the same seats as the V4 Saabs, only with no heat. A simpler climate control system was also added. The clock, cigarette lighter, glove compartment and the rear window defogger were also dropped.

Luxe. A budget model introduced in 1973 that came with the 1.85 L engine.

GLrand Luxe.

GLErand Luxe Elegant/Extra, introduced in 1976. The top model, equipped with fuel injection, power steering and an automatic transmission.

GLsrand Luxe Super. It was the same as a GL but with two carburetors instead of one. It had 108 hp (81 kW) compared to the 100 hp (75 kW) in the single-carburetor version.

Turbontroduced in 1978. It was fitted with a turbocharged version of the 2-litre engine. The body was originally a 3-door Combi coup version but later the company produced a two-door model, which was a limited homologation exercise, to enable the production of a rally car. It was available in red, silver, and black. The Turbo S was a special model with factory-mounted water injection, giving an extra 1520 hp. In 1978 there was a very limited edition of a little over 100 five-door 99 Turbos. They were only available in cardinal red metallic.

Finlandia limousine version of the Saab 99 GLE combi-coup with a 25 centimetres (9.8 in) longer wheelbase was introduced in 1977 by Valmet in Uusikaupunki (Nystad), Finland and was called the “Finlandia”. It was only sold in Finland. The first year had a short extension piece between the front and rear doors. In 1978 the wheelbase was only 20 centimetres (7.9 in) longer than in the standard model and all doors were stretched by 10 centimetres (3.9 in). Two late 99 Finlandias were fitted with a turbocharged engine at the factory. The tradition continued with the Saab 900 Finlandia in 1979.

History

The 99 was first shown on November 22, 1967. The first production cars came in autumn 1968.

In 1970 the interior was given a facelift and became more luxurious, with a new dashboard. The exhaust system was now made of aluminum. In March, the 99E Automatic was introduced. It had a 1.75 L engine with electronically controlled fuel injection, giving 95 hp (70 kW). A four-door version was also introduced.

In 1971 the 99 was given a larger and stronger engine, a 1.85 L engine giving 86 PS (63 kW; 85 hp) on the carbureted model and 95 hp (70 kW) for the fuel injected model. The 1.75 L engine was now only available with a carburetor. Saab also introduced headlight wipers. The dashboard was given a redesign along with new instruments.

In 1972 the 1.75 L engine was no longer available. The power of the engine was increased to 88 hp (65 kW) for carbureted models and 97 hp (71 kW) for fuel injected models. The 2.0 L engine became available. The major change this year were new plastic bumpers that could take impacts up to 8 km/h (5 mph) and still retain their shape. The suspension was stiffened and received stronger dampers. An electrically heated driver’s seat was also introduced.

In January the 99 EMS (Electronic-Manual-Special) was introduced. It was a…

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Fisher Brothers

Fisher Body’s beginnings trace back to a horse-drawn carriage shop in Norwalk, Ohio, in the late 1800s. Lawrence P. Fisher (December 14, 1852 in Peru, Ohio March 21, 1921, Norwalk, Ohio) and his wife Margaret Theisen (January 8, 1857 in Baden, Germany October 13, 1936 in Detroit, Michigan) had a large family of eleven children of which seven were sons who would all become a part of the Fisher Body Company in Detroit. They were married in Sandusky, Ohio, on May 11, 1876.

The Fisher brothers were:

Frederick John (18781941)

Charles Thomas (February 16,18801963 , wiper motors .

Lawrence Peter (October 19, 1888 in Norwalk, Ohio September 3, 1961 in Detroit, Michigan , car air horns .

William Andrew (18861969)

Edward F. (18911972)

Alfred J. (18921963)

Howard A. (19021942)

Early History

In 1904 and 1905, the two eldest brothers, Fred and Charles, came to Detroit where their uncle Albert Fisher had established Standard Wagon Works during the latter part of the 1880s. The brothers found work at the C. R. Wilson Company, a manufacturer of horse-drawn carriage bodies who were beginning to make bodies for the automobile manufacturers. With financing from their uncle, on July 22, 1908 Fred and Charles Fisher established the Fisher Body Company. However, their uncle soon wanted out and the brothers obtained the needed funds from Detroit businessman Louis Mendelssohn who became a shareholder and director. Within a short period of time, Charles and Fred Fisher brought their five younger brothers into the business.

Prior to forming the company, Fred Fisher had built the body of the Cadillac Osceola at the C. R. Wilson Company. Starting in 1910, Fisher became the supplier of all closed bodies for Cadillac, and also built for Buick.

In the early years of the company, the Fisher Brothers had to develop new body designs because the “horseless carriage” bodies did not have the strength to withstand the vibrations of the new motorcars. By 1913, the Fisher Body Company had the capacity to produce 100,000 cars per year and customers included: Ford, Krit, Chalmers, Cadillac, and Studebaker. Highly successful, they expanded into Canada, setting up a plant in Walkerville, Ontario, and by 1914 their operations had grown to become the world’s largest manufacturer of auto bodies. Part of the reason for their success was the development of interchangeable wooden body parts that did not have to be hand-fitted, as was the case in the construction of carriages. This required the design of new precision woodworking tools.

Fisher Body Corporation and General Motors

Fisher Body Plant 21, Piquette and St. Antoine.

In 1916, the company became the Fisher Body Corporation. Its capacity was now 370,000 bodies per year and its customers included Abbot, Buick, Cadillac, Chalmers, Chandler, Chevrolet, Churchfield, Elmore, EMF, Ford, Herreshoff, Hudson, Krit, Oldsmobile, Packard, Regal, and Studebaker.

The company constructed their signature factory, the Albert Kahn-designed Fisher Body 21, on Piquette Street, in Detroit, in 1919. The building is now part of the Piquette Avenue Industrial Historic District. At the time, the company had more than 40 buildings encompassing 3,700,000 square feet (344,000 m) of floor space.

In a 1919 deal put together by president William C. Durant, General Motors bought 60% of the company. The Fisher company purchased Fleetwood Metal Body in 1925, and in 1926 was integrated entirely as an in-house coachbuilding division of General Motors. It was split from Ternstedt and recombined in 1968. Fisher was dissolved by being merged with other GM operations in 1984.

Extent of Operations

From its beginning in the “horseless carriage shop” in Norwalk, Ohio, to its sale in 1919 and 1926 to General Motors, the Fisher Body Company was built by the Fisher brothers into one of the world’s largest manufacturing companies.

The company owned 160,000 acres (650 km2) of timberland and used more wood, carpet, tacks, and thread than any other manufacturer in the world. It had more than 40 plants and employed more than 100,000 people, and pioneered many improvements in tooling and automobile design including closed all-weather bodies.

Fisher Body’s contribution to the war effort in both World War I and World War II included the production of both airplanes and tanks. Alfred J. Fisher was Aircraft Director for Fisher Body.

Fisher Family

On August 14, 1944, the Fisher brothers resigned from General Motors to devote their time to other interests, including the Fisher Building on West Grand Boulevard in Detroit. The brothers also mounted a bid to take-over Hudson Motors, but their tender offer fell short of its market value and the effort was rejected by stockholders.

On January 19, 1972, the last of the Fisher brothers died. The seven brothers donated millions of dollars to schools, churches, and other charitable causes and were active in directing those endeavors.

The Fisher family has continued on in the automotive industry with Fisher Corporation (metal stamping), General Safety (seat belts), Fisher Dynamics (seat mechanisms & structures), and TeamLinden (seat mechanisms).

On July 22, 2008, Fisher Coachworks, LLC was launched with Gregory W. Fisher, grandson of Alfred J. Fisher, as CEO. The new company is developing a prototype of the GTB-40, a hybrid-electric 40′ transit bus that uses Nitronic, a stainless steel alloy developed by Autokinetics of Rochester Hills, Michigan, that allows the bus to be half the nominal weight of a standard transit bus and achieve twice the fuel economy.

Fisher milestones

1930 – Slanted windshields for reduced glare

1933 – “No-Draft” ventilation

1934 – One-piece steel “turret top” roofs

1935 – Former Durant Motors plant in Lansing, Michigan, opens

1936 – Dual windshield wipers

1969 – Fisher’s “Side Guard Beam” is introduced

1974 – Invented the ignition interlock system

1974 – Produced GM’s first airbag

1975 – Fisher develops GM’s first all-metric vehicle, the Chevrolet Chevette

1979 – Fisher Northern Ireland established, opens plant in Dundonald, Northern Ireland

1983 – Fisher Body and Buick division’s Flint, Michigan, operations are combined as Buick City

1984 – The Lansing factory is melded with Buick-Oldsmobile-Cadillac to become Lansing Car Assembly

1990 – Fisher closes Elyria, Ohio, facility

2008 – Fisher Coachworks, LLC officially launches and begins development of the GTB-40 transit bus

Advertising

The General Motors “Body by Fisher” advertising campaigns were legendary and brought many artists to the attention of the American public. McClelland Barclay used artwork showing fashionable women to promote the image of comfort and style. Edgar de Evia photographed a large campaign for them through Kudner Advertising in the 1950s using leading name models, haute couture from top designers often with huge location production budgets.

References

^ Fisher Coachworks Launch Rekindles 100-Year History

External links

Fisher Body at Car of the century

Fisher Coachworks, LLC

Categories: Coachbuilders | General Motors | Companies based in Detroit, Michigan | Economy of Lansing, Michigan | Companies established in 1908

Berkeley Professional Double French Horn 4 Rotors ,



History

In January 1996, Corbin Motors began work on developing an electric vehicle. The Sparrow passed final testing for Department of Transportation certification in April 1999. In September of that year, the Sparrow production line began manufacturing multiple vehicles in Hollister, California.

Fewer than 300 Sparrows were produced. Corbin Motors filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy on March 31, 2003, effectively killing the immediate future of the Corbin Sparrow. A bankruptcy court passed the Corbin assets to Ron Huch’s company, Phoenix Environmental Motors, which tried to revive the Sparrow. On August 5, 2004, Ohio businessman Dana Myers bought the Sparrow interests from Ron Huch.

The new company, Myers Motors of Tallmadge, Ohio, has upgraded the Sparrow, renamed it the MM NmG (“No more Gas”), and started selling it in April of 2006. As of June of 2008 the website lists a price of $29,995 without taxes or shipping. Future plans are to upgrade to lithium-ion battery technology as well as to develop a two-seat version for entry into the Progressive Insurance Automotive X Prize competition.

Several NmGs were featured in the movie Austin Powers in Goldmember.

Electrical system

The Sparrow electrical systems in a Corbin Sparrow VIN28 is composed of three isolated sections. “Defanging” is the process of changing the circuit to disconnect the high voltage from the low voltage .

Line voltage

110 / 220 V AC

Battery charger ( on-board charger made by Zivan). It can be replaced by a Manzanitamicro PFC-20 or PFC-30

Line voltage sensor.

High voltage

156 V DC

A 20 kW (continuous) 156-volt DC traction motor (Advanced DC Motors 8-inch (203 mm) diameter, part #203-06-4004)

Motor controller (Zark VIN 28, DCP or KiloVac EVCL controllers).

Energy is supplied by a battery pack composed of thirteen 12-volt deep-cycle lead-acid Optima batteries.

Low voltag , air flow sensors .

13.5 V D , window lift motor .

DC to DC converter

Accessories: this includes cigarette lighter outlet, radio/CD player, ignition switch, cabin fan and heater, speedometer, horn, direction, automotive lighting (headlamps and stop and backup lamps), door switch, seat belt, brake alarms, power windows and windshield wiper.

See also

Electric motorcycles and scooters

Electric vehicle

HMV Freeway

List of microcars by country of origin

Messerschmitt KR200

Venture Vehicles

References

^ Myers Motors. “NmG : Electric Drive System : Batteries”. Myers Motors OneCARE SMARTManuals. http://www.myersmotors.com/manual/Proc1696.htm. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.

^ http://www.electric-bikes.com/cars/ready.html#The%20CycleCar

^ U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) (2000-07-12) (PDF). Federal Register Vol. 64 No. 113. U.S. GPO. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2000_register&docid=00-14446-filed.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-09-22.

^ Enviromotors Wiki | Sparrow / Defanging

^ Enviromotors Wiki | Sparrow / OtherCharger

^ Advanced DC Motors

^ Enviromotors Wiki | Sparrow / Batteries

External links

Myers Motors

Myers Motors Launches Lithium Ion Initiative

Corbin (old owner) files for Chapter 7 Bankruptcy (March 31, 2003).

The 1st Sparrow Hatched

Yellow Motors

Sparrow closed wiki

Interview with the creator

Sparrow Photos

Tom Corbin’s version of the Sparrow’s story at CorbinSparrow.com

If You Build Personal Transportation Modules, Will They Come?

Corbin Sparrow on 3-wheelers.com

EVCL

Categories: Production electric vehicles | Three-wheeled motor vehicles | Microcars

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Night vision

Spectral range

Night-useful spectral range techniques make the viewer sensitive to types of light that would be invisible to a human observer. Human vision is confined to a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called visible light. Enhanced spectral range allows the viewer to take advantage of non-visible sources of electromagnetic radiation (such as near-infrared or ultraviolet radiation). Some animals can see well into the infrared and/or ultraviolet compared to humans.

Intensity range

Sufficient intensity range is simply the ability to see with very small quantities of light. Although the human visual system can, in theory, detect single photons under ideal conditions, the neurological noise filters limit sensitivity to a few tens of photons, even in ideal conditions , doorbell camera .

Many animals have better night vision than humans do, the result of one or more differences in the morphology and anatomy of their eyes. These include having a larger eyeball, a larger lens, a larger optical aperture (the pupils may expand to the physical limit of the eyelids), more rods than cones (or rods exclusively) in the retina, a tapetum lucidum, and improved neurological filtering , mp3 digital camera .

Enhanced intensity range is achieved via technological means through the use of an image intensifier, gain multiplication CCD, or other very low-noise and high-sensitivity array of photodetectors.

Biological night vision

In biological night vision, molecules of rhodopsin in the rods of the eye undergo a change in shape as light is absorbed by them. Rhodopsin is the chemical that allows night-vision, and is extremely sensitive to light. Exposed to a spectrum of light, the pigment immediately bleaches, and it takes about 30 minutes to regenerate fully, but most of the adaptation occurs within the first five or ten minutes in the dark. Rhodopsin in the human rods is less sensitive to the longer red wavelengths of light, so many people use red light to help preserve night vision as it only slowly depletes the eye’s rhodopsin stores in the rods and instead is viewed by the cones.

Many animals have a tissue layer called the tapetum lucidum in the back of the eye that reflects light back through the retina, increasing the amount of light available for it to capture. This is found in many nocturnal animals and some deep sea animals, and is the cause of eyeshine. Humans lack a tapetum lucidum.

Nocturnal mammals have rods with unique properties that make enhanced night vision possible. The nuclear pattern of their rods changes shortly after birth to become inverted. In contrast to contemporary rods, inverted rods have heterochromatin in the center of their nuclei and euchromatin and other transcription factors along the border. In addition, the outer nuclear layer (ONL) in nocturnal mammals is thick due to the millions of rods present to process the lower light intensities of a few photons. Rather than being scattered, the light is passed to each nucleus individually. In fact, an animal’s ability to see in low light levels may be similar to what humans see when using first- or perhaps second-generation image intensifiers.[citation needed]

Large size of the eye, and large size of the pupil relative to the eye, also contribute to night vision.

Night glasses

Binoculars (night vision goggles on flight helmet) Note: the green color of the objective lenses is the reflection of the Light Interference Filters, not a glow.

Night glasses are telescopes or binoculars with a large diameter objective. Large lenses can gather and concentrate light, thus intensifying light with purely optical means and enabling the user to see better in the dark than with naked eye alone. Often night glasses also have a fairly large exit pupil of 7 mm or more to let all gathered light into the user’s eye. However, many people can’t take advantage of this because of the limited dilation of the human pupil. To overcome this, soldiers were sometimes issued atropine eye drops to dilate pupils. Before the introduction of image intensifiers, night glasses were the only method of night vision, and thus were widely utilized, especially at sea. Second World War era night glasses usually had a lens diameter of 56 mm or more with magnification of seven or eight. Major drawbacks of night glasses are their large size and weight.

Active infrared

Imaging results with and without active-infrared.

Active infrared night vision combines infrared illumination of spectral range 700nm1000nm just below the visible spectrum of the human eye with CCD cameras sensitive to this light. The resulting scene, which is apparently dark to a human observer, appears as a monochrome image on a normal display device.

Because active infrared night vision systems can incorporate illuminators that produce high levels of infrared light, the resulting images are typically higher resolution than other night vision technologies. Active infrared night vision is now commonly found in commercial, residential and government security applications, where it enables effective night time imaging under low light conditions. However, since active infrared light can be detected by night vision goggles, it is generally not used in tactical military operations.

Thermal vision

Thermal imaging cameras are excellent tools for night vision. They image emitted thermal radiation and do not need a source of illumination. They produce an image in the darkest of nights and can see through light fog, rain and smoke. Thermal imaging cameras make small temperature differences visible. Thermal imaging cameras are widely used to complement new or existing security networks. See Thermographic camera.

Image intensifier

Main article: Image intensifier

The image intensifier is a vacuum-tube based device that converts visible light from an image so that a dimly lit scene can be viewed by a camera or the naked eye. While many believe the light is “amplified,” it is not. When IR light strikes a charged photocathode plate, electrons are emitted through a vacuum tube that strike the microchannel plate that cause the image screen to illuminate with a picture in the same pattern as the IR light that strikes the photocathode, and is on a frequency that the human eye can see. This is much like a CRT television, but instead of color guns the photocathode does the emitting.

The image is said to become “intensified” because the output visible light is brighter than the incoming IR light, and this effect directly relates to the difference in passive and active night vision goggles. Currently, the most popular image intensifier is the drop-in ANVIS module, though many other models and sizes are available at the market.

Night vision devices

Main article: Night vision device

A night vision device (NVD) is a device comprising an IR image intensifier tube in a rigid casing, commonly used by military forces. Lately night vision technology has become more widely available for civilian use, for example night vision filming and photography, night life observation, marine navigation and security. Some car manufacturers install portable night vision cameras on their vehicles.

A specific type of NVD, the night vision goggle (or NVG) is a night vision device with dual eyepieces; the device can utilize either one intensifier tube with the same image sent to both eyes, or a separate image intensifier tube for each eye. Night vision goggle combined with magnification lenses constitutes night vision binoculars. Other types include monocular night vision devices with only one eyepiece which may be mounted to firearms as night sights.

Automotive night vision

Main article: Automotive night vision

See also

Thermographic camera

Night operations (military)

Patents

US D248860 – Night vision Pocketscope

US 4707595 – Invisible light beam projector and night vision system

US 4991183 – Target illuminators and systems employing same

US 6075644 – Panoramic night vision goggles

U.S. Patent 7,173,237

US 6158879 – Infra-red reflector and illumination system

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Night Vision

Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate – Fort Belvoir, Virginia

References

^ “Histological study of choroidal melanocytes in animals with tapetum lucidum cellulosum (abstract)”. http://www.springerlink.com/content/k1t44v5003v6hhm3/.

^ “The Human Eye and Single Photons”. http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/see_a_photon.html.

^ Solovei, I.; Kreysing, M., Lanctt, C., Ksem, S., Peichl, L., Cremer, T., et al. (2009, April 16). “Nuclear Architecture of Rod Photoreceptor Cells Adapts to Vision in Mammalian Evolution.”. Cell 137 (2): 945953. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.01.052. http://www.science-direct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WSN-4W3325G-S&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F17%2F2009&_rdoc=24&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%237051%232009%23998629997%231050051%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=7051&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=27&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3dd47ebb589ebdd767f957eea220aa01.

^ CCTV Information

^ “[http://www.irinfo.org/articles/03_01_2007_grossman.html Thermal Infrared vs. Active Infrared: A New Technology Begins to be Commercialized]“. http://www.irinfo.org/articles/03_01_2007_grossman.html.

^ Extreme CCTV Surveillance Systems

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Thermal Energy

It is important to note that thermal imaging displays the amount of infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because of this, it is quite difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object using this method.

Thus, Incident Energy = Emitted Energy + Transmitted Energy + Reflected Energy

where Incident Energy is the energy profile when viewed through a thermal imaging device, Emitted Energy is generally what is intended to be measured, Transmitted Energy is the energy that passes through the subject from a remote thermal source, and Reflected Energy is the amount of energy that reflects off the surface of the object from a remote thermal source.

If the object is radiating at a higher temperature than its surroundings, then power transfer will be taking place and power will be radiating from warm to cold following the principle stated in the Second Law of Thermodynamics. So if there is a cool area in the thermogram, that object will be absorbing the radiation emitted by the warm object. The ability of both objects to emit or absorb this radiation is called emissivity (see below). In outdoor environments, convective cooling from wind may also need to be considered when trying to get an accurate temperature reading , orange digital cameras .

This thermogram shows a fault with an industrial electrical fuse block , wireless cctv cameras .

The thermographic camera would next employ a series of mathematical algorithms. Since the camera is only able to ‘see’ the electromagnetic radiation that is impossible to see with the human eye, it will build a picture in the viewer and record a visible picture, usually in a JPG format. In order to perform the role of noncontact temperature recorder, it will change the temperature of the object being viewed with its emissivity setting. Other algorithms can be used to affect the measurement, including the transmission ability of the transmitting medium (usually air), temperature of that transmitting medium and others. All these settings will affect the ultimate output for the temperature of the object being viewed.

This makes the thermographic camera an excellent tool for maintenance of electrical and mechanical systems in industry and commerce. By using the camera settings and by being careful when capturing the image, electrical systems can be scanned and problems can be found. Faults with steam traps in steam heating systems are easy to locate.

In the energy savings area, the thermographic camera can do more. Because it can see the radiating temperature of an object as well as what that object is radiating at, the product of the radiation can be calculated using the Stefanoltzmann constant.

Emissivity

Emissivity is a term representing a material’s ability to emit thermal radiation. Each material has a different emissivity and it can be quite a task to determine the appropriate emissivity for a subject. A material’s emissivity can range from 0.00 (completely not-emitting) to 1.00 (completely emitting); the emissivity often varies with temperature.

A Black Body is a theoretical object which will radiate Infrared Radiation at its Contact Temperature. If a thermocouple on a Black Body Radiator reads 50 degrees Celsius, the radiation the Black Body will give up will also be 50 degrees Celsius. Therefore a true Black Body will have an emissivity of 1.

Since there is no such thing as a Black Body, the Infrared Radiation of normal objects will appear to be less than the Contact Temperature. The rate (percentage) of emission of Infrared Radiation will thus be a fraction of the true Contact Temperature. This fraction is called Emissivity.

A table of the Emissivity of many materials and the temperatures that correspond to them are listed in this link. You will note in the table that some objects will have different emissivities in long wave as compared to mid wave emissions. As well emissivites may also change when some materials are at a different temperature.

To make a temperature measurement of an object, the thermographer will refer to the emissivity table to choose the emissivity value of the object which is then entered into the camera. The camera’s algorithm will correct the temperature by referring to the emissivity percent and calculate a temperature that would more closely match the actual Contact Temperature of the object.

If possible the thermographer would try to test the emissivity of the object in question. This would be more accurate than attempting to determine the emissivity of the object via a table. The usual method of testing the emissivity is to place a material of known, high emissivity, in contact with the surface of the object. The material of known emissivity can be as complex as industrial emissivity spray which is produced specifically for this purpose or it can be as simple as standard black insulation tape, emissivity 0.97. A temperature reading can then be taken of the object with the emissivity level on the imager set to the value of the test material. This will give an accurate value of the temperature of the object. The temperature can then be read on a part of the object not covered with the test material. If the temperature reading is different, the emissivity level on the imager can be adjusted until the object reads the same temperature. This will give the thermographer a much more accurate emissivity reading. There are times however when an emissivity test is not possible due to dangerous or inaccessible conditions. In these situations the thermographer must rely on tables.

Difference between infrared film and thermography

IR film is sensitive to infrared (IR) radiation in the 250C to 500C range, while the range of thermography is approximately -50C to over 2,000C. So, for an IR film to show something, it must be over 250C or be reflecting infrared radiation from something that is at least that hot. Night vision infrared devices image in the near-infrared, just beyond the visual spectrum, and can see emitted or reflected near-infrared in complete visual darkness. Starlight-type night vision devices generally only magnify ambient light.

Passive vs. active thermography

All objects above the absolute zero temperature (0 K) emit infrared radiation. Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, usually a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the mid (3 to 5 m) and long (7 to 14 m) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential problem.

In passive thermography, the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower temperature than the background. Passive thermography has many applications such as surveillance of people on a scene, and medical diagnosis. In active thermography on the other hand, an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the feature of interest and the background. The active approach is necessary in many cases given that the inspected parts are usually in equilibrium with the surroundings.

Advantages of thermography

It shows a visual picture so temperatures over a large area can be compared

It is capable of catching moving targets in real time

It is able to find deteriorating, i.e., higher temperature components prior to their failure

It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other methods

It is a non-destructive test method

It can be used to find defects in shafts and other metal parts[citation needed]

It can be used to see better in dark areas

Limitations and disadvantages of thermography

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (April 2008)

Due to the low volume of thermal cameras, quality cameras often have a high price range (often US$6,000 or more)

Images can be hard to interpret accurately even with experience[citation needed]

Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and reflections from other surfaces[citation needed]

Most cameras have 2% accuracy or worse and are not as accurate as contact methods[citation needed]

Only able to directly detect surface temperatures

Applications

Condition monitoring

Medical imaging

Infrared Mammography

Veterinary medicine

Night vision

Research

Process control

Nondestructive testing

Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defense

Chemical imaging

Volcanology

Thermal infrared imagers convert the energy in the infrared wavelength into a visible light video display. All objects above absolute zero emit thermal infrared energy, so thermal imagers can passively see all objects, regardless of ambient light. However, most thermal imagers only see objects warmer than -50C.

The spectrum and amount of thermal radiation depend strongly on an object’s surface temperature. This makes it possible for a thermal camera to display an object’s temperature. However, other factors also influence the radiation, which limits the accuracy of this technique. For example, the radiation depends not only on the temperature of the object, but is also a function of the emissivity of the object. Also, radiation also originates from the surroundings and is reflected in the object, and the radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.

See…

,

www.dmgov.org/

Des Moines (pronounced /dmn/) is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is also the county seat of Polk County. A small portion of the city extends into Warren County. It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as Fort Des Moines which was shortened to “Des Moines” in 1857. It is named after the Des Moines River, which may have been adapted from the French Rivire Des Moines, literally meaning “River of the Monks.” The five-county metropolitan area is ranked 91st in terms of population in the United States according to 2008 estimates with 556,230 residents according to United States Census Bureau. The city proper population was 198,682 at the 2000 census.

Des Moines is a major center for the insurance industry and also has a sizable financial services and publishing business base. In fact, Des Moines was credited with the “number one spot for U.S. insurance companies” in a Business Wire article. The city is the headquarters for the Principal Financial Group, the Meredith Corporation, Ruan Transportation, EMC Insurance Companies, and Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield. Other major corporations such as Wells Fargo, ING Group, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, Marsh, and Pioneer Hi-Bred have large operations in or near the metro area. Forbes Magazine ranked Des Moines as the fourth “Best Place for Business” in 2007. Kiplinger’s Personal Finance 2008 Best Cities List featured Des Moines as #9.

Des Moines is an important city in United States presidential politics as the capital of Iowa, which is home to the Iowa caucuses. The Iowa caucuses have been the first major electoral event in nominating the President of the United States since 1972. Hence, many presidential candidates set up campaign headquarters in Des Moines. A 2007 article in The New York Times stated “if you have any desire to witness presidential candidates in the most close-up and intimate of settings, there is arguably no better place to go than Des Moines.”

Contents

1 Origin of nam , internet surveillance camera .

2 Prehistor , wifi ip camera .

2.1 Prehistoric inhabitants of early Des Moines

3 History

3.1 Origin of Fort Des Moines

3.2 Early settlement

3.3 Era of growth

3.4 “City Beautiful”, industrial decline, and rebirth

4 Cityscape

5 Geography

5.1 Metropolitan area

5.2 Climate

6 Demographics

7 Economy

8 Culture

8.1 Arts and theatre

8.2 Attractions

8.3 Festivals and events

9 Museums

10 Government

11 Transportation

12 Education

13 Media

13.1 Radio

13.1.1 Commercial stations

13.1.2 Non-commercial stations

13.2 Television

13.3 Print

13.4 Web

14 Sports and recreation

14.1 Sports

14.2 Recreation

15 Sister cities

16 See also

17 References

18 External links

//

Origin of name

The origin of the name Des Moines is uncertain. The French “Des Moines” (pronounced [demwan] (helpinfo)) translates literally to “of the monks.” “Rivire Des Moines” translates to “river of the monks,” known today under the anglicized name of Des Moines River. However, the term could have referred to the river of the Moingonas, named after an American Indian tribe that resided in the area and built burial mounds. Another hypothesis says that the name refers to French Trappist monks, some of whom lived in huts at the mouth of the river. A more recent hypothesis uses a study of Miami-Illinois tribal names to say the word Moingona, one of the names given to the region, comes from word mooyiinkweena, a derogatory name which translates roughly to “the excrement-faces.” The name was seemingly given to Marquette and Joliet by a tribal leader in order to dissuade them from doing business with a neighboring tribe.

Prehistory

Prehistoric inhabitants of early Des Moines

Map of prehistoric and historic American Indian sites in Downtown Des Moines.

The juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers has attracted humans for at least 3,000 years. Several prehistoric occupation areas have been identified in downtown Des Moines by archaeologists. At least three Late Prehistoric villages stood in Des Moines, dating from about A.D. 1300 to 1700. In addition, 15 to 18 prehistoric American Indian mounds were observed in downtown Des Moines by early settlers. All have been destroyed.

History

Origin of Fort Des Moines

The City of Des Moines traces its origins to May 1843, when Captain James Allen supervised the construction of a fort on the site where the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers merge. Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon; however, the U.S. War Department told him to name it Fort Des Moines. The fort was built to control the Sauk and Meskwaki Indians, who had been transplanted to the area from their traditional lands in eastern Iowa. The fort was abandoned in 1846 after the Sauk and Meskwaki were removed from the state. Even after official removal, the Meskwaki continued to return to Des Moines until ca. 1857. Archaeological excavations have demonstrated that many fort-related features survived under what is now Martin Luther King, Jr. Parkway and First Street. Soldiers stationed at Fort Des Moines opened the first coal mines in the area, mining coal from the riverbank for the fort’s blacksmith.

Early settlement

Excavation of the prehistoric component of the Bird’s Run Site in Des Moines.

Settlers occupied the abandoned fort and nearby areas. On May 25, 1846, Fort Des Moines became the seat of Polk County. Arozina Perkins, a school teacher who spent the winter of 1850-1851 in the town of Fort Des Moines, was not favorably impressed. his is one of the strangest looking cities I ever saw… This town is at the juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers. It is mostly a level prairie with a few swells or hills around it. We have a court house of brick, and one church, a plain, framed building belonging to the Methodists. There are two taverns here, one of which has a most important little bell that rings together some fifty borders. I cannot tell you how many dwellings there are, for I have not counted them; some are of logs, some of brick, some framed, and some are the remains of the old dragoon houses…The people support two papers and there are several dry goods shops. I have been into but four of them… Society is as varied as the buildings are. There are people from nearly every state, and Dutch, Swedes, &c.15]

In May 1851 much of the town was flooded. “The Des Moines and Raccoon rivers rose to an unprecedented height, inundating the entire country east of the Des Moines river. Crops were utterly destroyed, houses and fences swept away.” This flood provided a clean slate for the city to grow on.

Era of growth

On September 22, 1851, it was incorporated as a city with its own charter and was later approved in a vote on October 18. In 1857, the name Fort Des Moines was shortened to Des Moines alone and the state capital was moved from Iowa City. Growth was slow during the Civil War period, but the city exploded in size and importance after a railroad link was completed in 1866.

In 1864, The Des Moines Coal Company was organized to begin the first systematic mining in the region. Their first mine, north of town on the west side of the river, was exhausted by 1873. The Black Diamond mine, near the south end of the West Seventh Street Bridge, sunk a 150 foot mine shaft to reach a 5 foot thick coal bed. By 1876, this mine employed 150 men and shipped 20 carloads of coal per day. By 1885, there were numerous mine shafts within the city limits, and mining began to spread into the surrounding countryside. By 1893, there were 23 mines in the region. By 1908, the coal resources of Des Moines were largely exhausted.

By 1900, Des Moines was Iowa’s largest city with a population of 62,139.

“City Beautiful”, industrial decline, and rebirth

Fort Des Moines memorial, the birthplace of Des Moines, is north of Principal Park.

West bank of Des Moines River as it flows through downtown showing the Beaux Arts balustrade above.

At the turn of the 20th century, Des Moines undertook a “City Beautiful” project in which large Beaux Arts public buildings and fountains were constructed along the Des Moines River, this effort continued through the 1930s. The old Des Moines Public Library building (now the home of the World Food Prize) and the City Hall are surviving examples, as is the ornate balustrade that still lines the river. The ornamental fountains that once stood along the riverbank were buried in the 1950s, when the city began a post-industrial decline which lasted until the late 1980s. The city has since rebounded, transforming from a blue-collar industrial city to a white-collar professional city.

In 1907, the city adopted a city commission government known as the Des Moines Plan, comprising an elected mayor and four commissioners who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance. This form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a council-manager government, and further changed in 1967 so that four of the six city council members were elected by ward rather than at-large. As with many major urban areas, the city core began losing population to the suburbs in the 1960s (the peak population of 208,982 was recorded in 1960).The population was 198,682 in 2000 but dropped slightly to 197,052 in 2008. However, the growth of the outlying suburbs has been a constant and the overall metro area population is over 550,000 today.

During the Great Flood of 1993, heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines…